Philosophe

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The philosophes (French for philosophers) were a group of intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment.^[1]

[edit] Usage of the term philosophe

Philosophe is the French word for "philosopher", and was a word that the French enlightenment thinkers usually applied to themselves.^[2] However, the term was somewhat misleading. Whereas philosophers concern themselves with abstract theories, the philosophes were public intellectuals dedicated to solving the real problems of the world. They wrote on subjects ranging from current affairs to art criticism, and they wrote in every conceivable format. The Swiss philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau, for example, wrote a political tract, a treatise on education, a constitution for Poland, an analysis of the effects of the theater on public morals, a best-selling novel, an opera, and a notorious autobiography. The philosophes wrote for a broad educated public of readers who snatched up every Enlightenment book they could find at their local booksellers, even when rulers or churches tried to forbid such works. Between 1740 and 1789, the Enlightenment acquired its name and, despite heated conflicts between the philosophes and state and religious authorities, gained support in the highest reaches of government. Although philosopheis a French word, the Enlightenment was distinctly cosmopolitan; philosophes could be found from Philadelphia to St. Petersburg. The philosophes considered themselves part of a grand "republic of letters" that transcended national political boundaries. They were not republicans in the representative government and opposed ideals of reason, reform, and freedom. In 1784, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant summed up the program of the Enlightenment in two Latin words: sapere aude, dare to know—have the courage to think for yourself. The philosophes used reason to attack superstition, bigotry, and religious fanaticism, which they considered the chief obstacles to free thought and social reform. Voltaire took religious fanaticism as his chief target: "Once fanaticism has corrupted a mind, the malady is almost incurable....The only remedy for this epidemic malady is the philosophical spirit." Enlightenment writers did not necessarily oppose organized religion, but they strenuously objected to religious intolerance. They believed that the systematic application of reason could do what religious belief could not: improve the human condition by pointing to needed reforms. Reason meant critical, informed, scientific thinking about social issues and problems. The philosophes believed that the spread of knowledge would encourage reform in every aspect of life, from the grain trade to the penal system. Chief among their desired reforms was intellectual freedom—the freedom to use one's own reason and to publish the results. The philosophes wanted freedom of the press and freedom of religion, which they considered "Natural rights" guaranteed by "natural law." In their view, progress depended on these freedoms.^[3] The word was introduced into the English language in the work The Enlightenment - An interpretation (2 vols., 1966-69) by the historian Peter Gay.^[4] He meant it as a term that should be applied to all enlightenment philosophers "... from Edingburgh to Naples, Paris to Berlin, Boston to Philadelphia ...".^[5] Various scholars adopted it and have used it, though often with different connotations. There is a difference of opinion concerning whether the word should be applied to all enlightenment thinkers or be restricted to label only the French philosophers.^[6]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• The philosophes
• Kagan, Donald et al. The Western Heritage, since 1300: Sixth Edition, Prentice-Hall, 1998. ISBN 0-13-617374-8